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diff --git a/Documentation/DocBook/kernel-hacking.tmpl b/Documentation/DocBook/kernel-hacking.tmpl new file mode 100644 index 000000000000..49a9ef82d575 --- /dev/null +++ b/Documentation/DocBook/kernel-hacking.tmpl @@ -0,0 +1,1349 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> +<!DOCTYPE book PUBLIC "-//OASIS//DTD DocBook XML V4.1.2//EN" + "http://www.oasis-open.org/docbook/xml/4.1.2/docbookx.dtd" []> + +<book id="lk-hacking-guide"> + <bookinfo> + <title>Unreliable Guide To Hacking The Linux Kernel</title> + + <authorgroup> + <author> + <firstname>Paul</firstname> + <othername>Rusty</othername> + <surname>Russell</surname> + <affiliation> + <address> + <email>rusty@rustcorp.com.au</email> + </address> + </affiliation> + </author> + </authorgroup> + + <copyright> + <year>2001</year> + <holder>Rusty Russell</holder> + </copyright> + + <legalnotice> + <para> + This documentation is free software; you can redistribute + it and/or modify it under the terms of the GNU General Public + License as published by the Free Software Foundation; either + version 2 of the License, or (at your option) any later + version. + </para> + + <para> + This program is distributed in the hope that it will be + useful, but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied + warranty of MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. + See the GNU General Public License for more details. + </para> + + <para> + You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public + License along with this program; if not, write to the Free + Software Foundation, Inc., 59 Temple Place, Suite 330, Boston, + MA 02111-1307 USA + </para> + + <para> + For more details see the file COPYING in the source + distribution of Linux. + </para> + </legalnotice> + + <releaseinfo> + This is the first release of this document as part of the kernel tarball. + </releaseinfo> + + </bookinfo> + + <toc></toc> + + <chapter id="introduction"> + <title>Introduction</title> + <para> + Welcome, gentle reader, to Rusty's Unreliable Guide to Linux + Kernel Hacking. This document describes the common routines and + general requirements for kernel code: its goal is to serve as a + primer for Linux kernel development for experienced C + programmers. I avoid implementation details: that's what the + code is for, and I ignore whole tracts of useful routines. + </para> + <para> + Before you read this, please understand that I never wanted to + write this document, being grossly under-qualified, but I always + wanted to read it, and this was the only way. I hope it will + grow into a compendium of best practice, common starting points + and random information. + </para> + </chapter> + + <chapter id="basic-players"> + <title>The Players</title> + + <para> + At any time each of the CPUs in a system can be: + </para> + + <itemizedlist> + <listitem> + <para> + not associated with any process, serving a hardware interrupt; + </para> + </listitem> + + <listitem> + <para> + not associated with any process, serving a softirq, tasklet or bh; + </para> + </listitem> + + <listitem> + <para> + running in kernel space, associated with a process; + </para> + </listitem> + + <listitem> + <para> + running a process in user space. + </para> + </listitem> + </itemizedlist> + + <para> + There is a strict ordering between these: other than the last + category (userspace) each can only be pre-empted by those above. + For example, while a softirq is running on a CPU, no other + softirq will pre-empt it, but a hardware interrupt can. However, + any other CPUs in the system execute independently. + </para> + + <para> + We'll see a number of ways that the user context can block + interrupts, to become truly non-preemptable. + </para> + + <sect1 id="basics-usercontext"> + <title>User Context</title> + + <para> + User context is when you are coming in from a system call or + other trap: you can sleep, and you own the CPU (except for + interrupts) until you call <function>schedule()</function>. + In other words, user context (unlike userspace) is not pre-emptable. + </para> + + <note> + <para> + You are always in user context on module load and unload, + and on operations on the block device layer. + </para> + </note> + + <para> + In user context, the <varname>current</varname> pointer (indicating + the task we are currently executing) is valid, and + <function>in_interrupt()</function> + (<filename>include/linux/interrupt.h</filename>) is <returnvalue>false + </returnvalue>. + </para> + + <caution> + <para> + Beware that if you have interrupts or bottom halves disabled + (see below), <function>in_interrupt()</function> will return a + false positive. + </para> + </caution> + </sect1> + + <sect1 id="basics-hardirqs"> + <title>Hardware Interrupts (Hard IRQs)</title> + + <para> + Timer ticks, <hardware>network cards</hardware> and + <hardware>keyboard</hardware> are examples of real + hardware which produce interrupts at any time. The kernel runs + interrupt handlers, which services the hardware. The kernel + guarantees that this handler is never re-entered: if another + interrupt arrives, it is queued (or dropped). Because it + disables interrupts, this handler has to be fast: frequently it + simply acknowledges the interrupt, marks a `software interrupt' + for execution and exits. + </para> + + <para> + You can tell you are in a hardware interrupt, because + <function>in_irq()</function> returns <returnvalue>true</returnvalue>. + </para> + <caution> + <para> + Beware that this will return a false positive if interrupts are disabled + (see below). + </para> + </caution> + </sect1> + + <sect1 id="basics-softirqs"> + <title>Software Interrupt Context: Bottom Halves, Tasklets, softirqs</title> + + <para> + Whenever a system call is about to return to userspace, or a + hardware interrupt handler exits, any `software interrupts' + which are marked pending (usually by hardware interrupts) are + run (<filename>kernel/softirq.c</filename>). + </para> + + <para> + Much of the real interrupt handling work is done here. Early in + the transition to <acronym>SMP</acronym>, there were only `bottom + halves' (BHs), which didn't take advantage of multiple CPUs. Shortly + after we switched from wind-up computers made of match-sticks and snot, + we abandoned this limitation. + </para> + + <para> + <filename class="headerfile">include/linux/interrupt.h</filename> lists the + different BH's. No matter how many CPUs you have, no two BHs will run at + the same time. This made the transition to SMP simpler, but sucks hard for + scalable performance. A very important bottom half is the timer + BH (<filename class="headerfile">include/linux/timer.h</filename>): you + can register to have it call functions for you in a given length of time. + </para> + + <para> + 2.3.43 introduced softirqs, and re-implemented the (now + deprecated) BHs underneath them. Softirqs are fully-SMP + versions of BHs: they can run on as many CPUs at once as + required. This means they need to deal with any races in shared + data using their own locks. A bitmask is used to keep track of + which are enabled, so the 32 available softirqs should not be + used up lightly. (<emphasis>Yes</emphasis>, people will + notice). + </para> + + <para> + tasklets (<filename class="headerfile">include/linux/interrupt.h</filename>) + are like softirqs, except they are dynamically-registrable (meaning you + can have as many as you want), and they also guarantee that any tasklet + will only run on one CPU at any time, although different tasklets can + run simultaneously (unlike different BHs). + </para> + <caution> + <para> + The name `tasklet' is misleading: they have nothing to do with `tasks', + and probably more to do with some bad vodka Alexey Kuznetsov had at the + time. + </para> + </caution> + + <para> + You can tell you are in a softirq (or bottom half, or tasklet) + using the <function>in_softirq()</function> macro + (<filename class="headerfile">include/linux/interrupt.h</filename>). + </para> + <caution> + <para> + Beware that this will return a false positive if a bh lock (see below) + is held. + </para> + </caution> + </sect1> + </chapter> + + <chapter id="basic-rules"> + <title>Some Basic Rules</title> + + <variablelist> + <varlistentry> + <term>No memory protection</term> + <listitem> + <para> + If you corrupt memory, whether in user context or + interrupt context, the whole machine will crash. Are you + sure you can't do what you want in userspace? + </para> + </listitem> + </varlistentry> + + <varlistentry> + <term>No floating point or <acronym>MMX</acronym></term> + <listitem> + <para> + The <acronym>FPU</acronym> context is not saved; even in user + context the <acronym>FPU</acronym> state probably won't + correspond with the current process: you would mess with some + user process' <acronym>FPU</acronym> state. If you really want + to do this, you would have to explicitly save/restore the full + <acronym>FPU</acronym> state (and avoid context switches). It + is generally a bad idea; use fixed point arithmetic first. + </para> + </listitem> + </varlistentry> + + <varlistentry> + <term>A rigid stack limit</term> + <listitem> + <para> + The kernel stack is about 6K in 2.2 (for most + architectures: it's about 14K on the Alpha), and shared + with interrupts so you can't use it all. Avoid deep + recursion and huge local arrays on the stack (allocate + them dynamically instead). + </para> + </listitem> + </varlistentry> + + <varlistentry> + <term>The Linux kernel is portable</term> + <listitem> + <para> + Let's keep it that way. Your code should be 64-bit clean, + and endian-independent. You should also minimize CPU + specific stuff, e.g. inline assembly should be cleanly + encapsulated and minimized to ease porting. Generally it + should be restricted to the architecture-dependent part of + the kernel tree. + </para> + </listitem> + </varlistentry> + </variablelist> + </chapter> + + <chapter id="ioctls"> + <title>ioctls: Not writing a new system call</title> + + <para> + A system call generally looks like this + </para> + + <programlisting> +asmlinkage long sys_mycall(int arg) +{ + return 0; +} + </programlisting> + + <para> + First, in most cases you don't want to create a new system call. + You create a character device and implement an appropriate ioctl + for it. This is much more flexible than system calls, doesn't have + to be entered in every architecture's + <filename class="headerfile">include/asm/unistd.h</filename> and + <filename>arch/kernel/entry.S</filename> file, and is much more + likely to be accepted by Linus. + </para> + + <para> + If all your routine does is read or write some parameter, consider + implementing a <function>sysctl</function> interface instead. + </para> + + <para> + Inside the ioctl you're in user context to a process. When a + error occurs you return a negated errno (see + <filename class="headerfile">include/linux/errno.h</filename>), + otherwise you return <returnvalue>0</returnvalue>. + </para> + + <para> + After you slept you should check if a signal occurred: the + Unix/Linux way of handling signals is to temporarily exit the + system call with the <constant>-ERESTARTSYS</constant> error. The + system call entry code will switch back to user context, process + the signal handler and then your system call will be restarted + (unless the user disabled that). So you should be prepared to + process the restart, e.g. if you're in the middle of manipulating + some data structure. + </para> + + <programlisting> +if (signal_pending()) + return -ERESTARTSYS; + </programlisting> + + <para> + If you're doing longer computations: first think userspace. If you + <emphasis>really</emphasis> want to do it in kernel you should + regularly check if you need to give up the CPU (remember there is + cooperative multitasking per CPU). Idiom: + </para> + + <programlisting> +cond_resched(); /* Will sleep */ + </programlisting> + + <para> + A short note on interface design: the UNIX system call motto is + "Provide mechanism not policy". + </para> + </chapter> + + <chapter id="deadlock-recipes"> + <title>Recipes for Deadlock</title> + + <para> + You cannot call any routines which may sleep, unless: + </para> + <itemizedlist> + <listitem> + <para> + You are in user context. + </para> + </listitem> + + <listitem> + <para> + You do not own any spinlocks. + </para> + </listitem> + + <listitem> + <para> + You have interrupts enabled (actually, Andi Kleen says + that the scheduling code will enable them for you, but + that's probably not what you wanted). + </para> + </listitem> + </itemizedlist> + + <para> + Note that some functions may sleep implicitly: common ones are + the user space access functions (*_user) and memory allocation + functions without <symbol>GFP_ATOMIC</symbol>. + </para> + + <para> + You will eventually lock up your box if you break these rules. + </para> + + <para> + Really. + </para> + </chapter> + + <chapter id="common-routines"> + <title>Common Routines</title> + + <sect1 id="routines-printk"> + <title> + <function>printk()</function> + <filename class="headerfile">include/linux/kernel.h</filename> + </title> + + <para> + <function>printk()</function> feeds kernel messages to the + console, dmesg, and the syslog daemon. It is useful for debugging + and reporting errors, and can be used inside interrupt context, + but use with caution: a machine which has its console flooded with + printk messages is unusable. It uses a format string mostly + compatible with ANSI C printf, and C string concatenation to give + it a first "priority" argument: + </para> + + <programlisting> +printk(KERN_INFO "i = %u\n", i); + </programlisting> + + <para> + See <filename class="headerfile">include/linux/kernel.h</filename>; + for other KERN_ values; these are interpreted by syslog as the + level. Special case: for printing an IP address use + </para> + + <programlisting> +__u32 ipaddress; +printk(KERN_INFO "my ip: %d.%d.%d.%d\n", NIPQUAD(ipaddress)); + </programlisting> + + <para> + <function>printk()</function> internally uses a 1K buffer and does + not catch overruns. Make sure that will be enough. + </para> + + <note> + <para> + You will know when you are a real kernel hacker + when you start typoing printf as printk in your user programs :) + </para> + </note> + + <!--- From the Lions book reader department --> + + <note> + <para> + Another sidenote: the original Unix Version 6 sources had a + comment on top of its printf function: "Printf should not be + used for chit-chat". You should follow that advice. + </para> + </note> + </sect1> + + <sect1 id="routines-copy"> + <title> + <function>copy_[to/from]_user()</function> + / + <function>get_user()</function> + / + <function>put_user()</function> + <filename class="headerfile">include/asm/uaccess.h</filename> + </title> + + <para> + <emphasis>[SLEEPS]</emphasis> + </para> + + <para> + <function>put_user()</function> and <function>get_user()</function> + are used to get and put single values (such as an int, char, or + long) from and to userspace. A pointer into userspace should + never be simply dereferenced: data should be copied using these + routines. Both return <constant>-EFAULT</constant> or 0. + </para> + <para> + <function>copy_to_user()</function> and + <function>copy_from_user()</function> are more general: they copy + an arbitrary amount of data to and from userspace. + <caution> + <para> + Unlike <function>put_user()</function> and + <function>get_user()</function>, they return the amount of + uncopied data (ie. <returnvalue>0</returnvalue> still means + success). + </para> + </caution> + [Yes, this moronic interface makes me cringe. Please submit a + patch and become my hero --RR.] + </para> + <para> + The functions may sleep implicitly. This should never be called + outside user context (it makes no sense), with interrupts + disabled, or a spinlock held. + </para> + </sect1> + + <sect1 id="routines-kmalloc"> + <title><function>kmalloc()</function>/<function>kfree()</function> + <filename class="headerfile">include/linux/slab.h</filename></title> + + <para> + <emphasis>[MAY SLEEP: SEE BELOW]</emphasis> + </para> + + <para> + These routines are used to dynamically request pointer-aligned + chunks of memory, like malloc and free do in userspace, but + <function>kmalloc()</function> takes an extra flag word. + Important values: + </para> + + <variablelist> + <varlistentry> + <term> + <constant> + GFP_KERNEL + </constant> + </term> + <listitem> + <para> + May sleep and swap to free memory. Only allowed in user + context, but is the most reliable way to allocate memory. + </para> + </listitem> + </varlistentry> + + <varlistentry> + <term> + <constant> + GFP_ATOMIC + </constant> + </term> + <listitem> + <para> + Don't sleep. Less reliable than <constant>GFP_KERNEL</constant>, + but may be called from interrupt context. You should + <emphasis>really</emphasis> have a good out-of-memory + error-handling strategy. + </para> + </listitem> + </varlistentry> + + <varlistentry> + <term> + <constant> + GFP_DMA + </constant> + </term> + <listitem> + <para> + Allocate ISA DMA lower than 16MB. If you don't know what that + is you don't need it. Very unreliable. + </para> + </listitem> + </varlistentry> + </variablelist> + + <para> + If you see a <errorname>kmem_grow: Called nonatomically from int + </errorname> warning message you called a memory allocation function + from interrupt context without <constant>GFP_ATOMIC</constant>. + You should really fix that. Run, don't walk. + </para> + + <para> + If you are allocating at least <constant>PAGE_SIZE</constant> + (<filename class="headerfile">include/asm/page.h</filename>) bytes, + consider using <function>__get_free_pages()</function> + + (<filename class="headerfile">include/linux/mm.h</filename>). It + takes an order argument (0 for page sized, 1 for double page, 2 + for four pages etc.) and the same memory priority flag word as + above. + </para> + + <para> + If you are allocating more than a page worth of bytes you can use + <function>vmalloc()</function>. It'll allocate virtual memory in + the kernel map. This block is not contiguous in physical memory, + but the <acronym>MMU</acronym> makes it look like it is for you + (so it'll only look contiguous to the CPUs, not to external device + drivers). If you really need large physically contiguous memory + for some weird device, you have a problem: it is poorly supported + in Linux because after some time memory fragmentation in a running + kernel makes it hard. The best way is to allocate the block early + in the boot process via the <function>alloc_bootmem()</function> + routine. + </para> + + <para> + Before inventing your own cache of often-used objects consider + using a slab cache in + <filename class="headerfile">include/linux/slab.h</filename> + </para> + </sect1> + + <sect1 id="routines-current"> + <title><function>current</function> + <filename class="headerfile">include/asm/current.h</filename></title> + + <para> + This global variable (really a macro) contains a pointer to + the current task structure, so is only valid in user context. + For example, when a process makes a system call, this will + point to the task structure of the calling process. It is + <emphasis>not NULL</emphasis> in interrupt context. + </para> + </sect1> + + <sect1 id="routines-udelay"> + <title><function>udelay()</function>/<function>mdelay()</function> + <filename class="headerfile">include/asm/delay.h</filename> + <filename class="headerfile">include/linux/delay.h</filename> + </title> + + <para> + The <function>udelay()</function> function can be used for small pauses. + Do not use large values with <function>udelay()</function> as you risk + overflow - the helper function <function>mdelay()</function> is useful + here, or even consider <function>schedule_timeout()</function>. + </para> + </sect1> + + <sect1 id="routines-endian"> + <title><function>cpu_to_be32()</function>/<function>be32_to_cpu()</function>/<function>cpu_to_le32()</function>/<function>le32_to_cpu()</function> + <filename class="headerfile">include/asm/byteorder.h</filename> + </title> + + <para> + The <function>cpu_to_be32()</function> family (where the "32" can + be replaced by 64 or 16, and the "be" can be replaced by "le") are + the general way to do endian conversions in the kernel: they + return the converted value. All variations supply the reverse as + well: <function>be32_to_cpu()</function>, etc. + </para> + + <para> + There are two major variations of these functions: the pointer + variation, such as <function>cpu_to_be32p()</function>, which take + a pointer to the given type, and return the converted value. The + other variation is the "in-situ" family, such as + <function>cpu_to_be32s()</function>, which convert value referred + to by the pointer, and return void. + </para> + </sect1> + + <sect1 id="routines-local-irqs"> + <title><function>local_irq_save()</function>/<function>local_irq_restore()</function> + <filename class="headerfile">include/asm/system.h</filename> + </title> + + <para> + These routines disable hard interrupts on the local CPU, and + restore them. They are reentrant; saving the previous state in + their one <varname>unsigned long flags</varname> argument. If you + know that interrupts are enabled, you can simply use + <function>local_irq_disable()</function> and + <function>local_irq_enable()</function>. + </para> + </sect1> + + <sect1 id="routines-softirqs"> + <title><function>local_bh_disable()</function>/<function>local_bh_enable()</function> + <filename class="headerfile">include/linux/interrupt.h</filename></title> + + <para> + These routines disable soft interrupts on the local CPU, and + restore them. They are reentrant; if soft interrupts were + disabled before, they will still be disabled after this pair + of functions has been called. They prevent softirqs, tasklets + and bottom halves from running on the current CPU. + </para> + </sect1> + + <sect1 id="routines-processorids"> + <title><function>smp_processor_id</function>() + <filename class="headerfile">include/asm/smp.h</filename></title> + + <para> + <function>smp_processor_id()</function> returns the current + processor number, between 0 and <symbol>NR_CPUS</symbol> (the + maximum number of CPUs supported by Linux, currently 32). These + values are not necessarily continuous. + </para> + </sect1> + + <sect1 id="routines-init"> + <title><type>__init</type>/<type>__exit</type>/<type>__initdata</type> + <filename class="headerfile">include/linux/init.h</filename></title> + + <para> + After boot, the kernel frees up a special section; functions + marked with <type>__init</type> and data structures marked with + <type>__initdata</type> are dropped after boot is complete (within + modules this directive is currently ignored). <type>__exit</type> + is used to declare a function which is only required on exit: the + function will be dropped if this file is not compiled as a module. + See the header file for use. Note that it makes no sense for a function + marked with <type>__init</type> to be exported to modules with + <function>EXPORT_SYMBOL()</function> - this will break. + </para> + <para> + Static data structures marked as <type>__initdata</type> must be initialised + (as opposed to ordinary static data which is zeroed BSS) and cannot be + <type>const</type>. + </para> + + </sect1> + + <sect1 id="routines-init-again"> + <title><function>__initcall()</function>/<function>module_init()</function> + <filename class="headerfile">include/linux/init.h</filename></title> + <para> + Many parts of the kernel are well served as a module + (dynamically-loadable parts of the kernel). Using the + <function>module_init()</function> and + <function>module_exit()</function> macros it is easy to write code + without #ifdefs which can operate both as a module or built into + the kernel. + </para> + + <para> + The <function>module_init()</function> macro defines which + function is to be called at module insertion time (if the file is + compiled as a module), or at boot time: if the file is not + compiled as a module the <function>module_init()</function> macro + becomes equivalent to <function>__initcall()</function>, which + through linker magic ensures that the function is called on boot. + </para> + + <para> + The function can return a negative error number to cause + module loading to fail (unfortunately, this has no effect if + the module is compiled into the kernel). For modules, this is + called in user context, with interrupts enabled, and the + kernel lock held, so it can sleep. + </para> + </sect1> + + <sect1 id="routines-moduleexit"> + <title> <function>module_exit()</function> + <filename class="headerfile">include/linux/init.h</filename> </title> + + <para> + This macro defines the function to be called at module removal + time (or never, in the case of the file compiled into the + kernel). It will only be called if the module usage count has + reached zero. This function can also sleep, but cannot fail: + everything must be cleaned up by the time it returns. + </para> + </sect1> + + <!-- add info on new-style module refcounting here --> + </chapter> + + <chapter id="queues"> + <title>Wait Queues + <filename class="headerfile">include/linux/wait.h</filename> + </title> + <para> + <emphasis>[SLEEPS]</emphasis> + </para> + + <para> + A wait queue is used to wait for someone to wake you up when a + certain condition is true. They must be used carefully to ensure + there is no race condition. You declare a + <type>wait_queue_head_t</type>, and then processes which want to + wait for that condition declare a <type>wait_queue_t</type> + referring to themselves, and place that in the queue. + </para> + + <sect1 id="queue-declaring"> + <title>Declaring</title> + + <para> + You declare a <type>wait_queue_head_t</type> using the + <function>DECLARE_WAIT_QUEUE_HEAD()</function> macro, or using the + <function>init_waitqueue_head()</function> routine in your + initialization code. + </para> + </sect1> + + <sect1 id="queue-waitqueue"> + <title>Queuing</title> + + <para> + Placing yourself in the waitqueue is fairly complex, because you + must put yourself in the queue before checking the condition. + There is a macro to do this: + <function>wait_event_interruptible()</function> + + <filename class="headerfile">include/linux/sched.h</filename> The + first argument is the wait queue head, and the second is an + expression which is evaluated; the macro returns + <returnvalue>0</returnvalue> when this expression is true, or + <returnvalue>-ERESTARTSYS</returnvalue> if a signal is received. + The <function>wait_event()</function> version ignores signals. + </para> + <para> + Do not use the <function>sleep_on()</function> function family - + it is very easy to accidentally introduce races; almost certainly + one of the <function>wait_event()</function> family will do, or a + loop around <function>schedule_timeout()</function>. If you choose + to loop around <function>schedule_timeout()</function> remember + you must set the task state (with + <function>set_current_state()</function>) on each iteration to avoid + busy-looping. + </para> + + </sect1> + + <sect1 id="queue-waking"> + <title>Waking Up Queued Tasks</title> + + <para> + Call <function>wake_up()</function> + + <filename class="headerfile">include/linux/sched.h</filename>;, + which will wake up every process in the queue. The exception is + if one has <constant>TASK_EXCLUSIVE</constant> set, in which case + the remainder of the queue will not be woken. + </para> + </sect1> + </chapter> + + <chapter id="atomic-ops"> + <title>Atomic Operations</title> + + <para> + Certain operations are guaranteed atomic on all platforms. The + first class of operations work on <type>atomic_t</type> + + <filename class="headerfile">include/asm/atomic.h</filename>; this + contains a signed integer (at least 24 bits long), and you must use + these functions to manipulate or read atomic_t variables. + <function>atomic_read()</function> and + <function>atomic_set()</function> get and set the counter, + <function>atomic_add()</function>, + <function>atomic_sub()</function>, + <function>atomic_inc()</function>, + <function>atomic_dec()</function>, and + <function>atomic_dec_and_test()</function> (returns + <returnvalue>true</returnvalue> if it was decremented to zero). + </para> + + <para> + Yes. It returns <returnvalue>true</returnvalue> (i.e. != 0) if the + atomic variable is zero. + </para> + + <para> + Note that these functions are slower than normal arithmetic, and + so should not be used unnecessarily. On some platforms they + are much slower, like 32-bit Sparc where they use a spinlock. + </para> + + <para> + The second class of atomic operations is atomic bit operations on a + <type>long</type>, defined in + + <filename class="headerfile">include/linux/bitops.h</filename>. These + operations generally take a pointer to the bit pattern, and a bit + number: 0 is the least significant bit. + <function>set_bit()</function>, <function>clear_bit()</function> + and <function>change_bit()</function> set, clear, and flip the + given bit. <function>test_and_set_bit()</function>, + <function>test_and_clear_bit()</function> and + <function>test_and_change_bit()</function> do the same thing, + except return true if the bit was previously set; these are + particularly useful for very simple locking. + </para> + + <para> + It is possible to call these operations with bit indices greater + than BITS_PER_LONG. The resulting behavior is strange on big-endian + platforms though so it is a good idea not to do this. + </para> + + <para> + Note that the order of bits depends on the architecture, and in + particular, the bitfield passed to these operations must be at + least as large as a <type>long</type>. + </para> + </chapter> + + <chapter id="symbols"> + <title>Symbols</title> + + <para> + Within the kernel proper, the normal linking rules apply + (ie. unless a symbol is declared to be file scope with the + <type>static</type> keyword, it can be used anywhere in the + kernel). However, for modules, a special exported symbol table is + kept which limits the entry points to the kernel proper. Modules + can also export symbols. + </para> + + <sect1 id="sym-exportsymbols"> + <title><function>EXPORT_SYMBOL()</function> + <filename class="headerfile">include/linux/module.h</filename></title> + + <para> + This is the classic method of exporting a symbol, and it works + for both modules and non-modules. In the kernel all these + declarations are often bundled into a single file to help + genksyms (which searches source files for these declarations). + See the comment on genksyms and Makefiles below. + </para> + </sect1> + + <sect1 id="sym-exportsymbols-gpl"> + <title><function>EXPORT_SYMBOL_GPL()</function> + <filename class="headerfile">include/linux/module.h</filename></title> + + <para> + Similar to <function>EXPORT_SYMBOL()</function> except that the + symbols exported by <function>EXPORT_SYMBOL_GPL()</function> can + only be seen by modules with a + <function>MODULE_LICENSE()</function> that specifies a GPL + compatible license. + </para> + </sect1> + </chapter> + + <chapter id="conventions"> + <title>Routines and Conventions</title> + + <sect1 id="conventions-doublelinkedlist"> + <title>Double-linked lists + <filename class="headerfile">include/linux/list.h</filename></title> + + <para> + There are three sets of linked-list routines in the kernel + headers, but this one seems to be winning out (and Linus has + used it). If you don't have some particular pressing need for + a single list, it's a good choice. In fact, I don't care + whether it's a good choice or not, just use it so we can get + rid of the others. + </para> + </sect1> + + <sect1 id="convention-returns"> + <title>Return Conventions</title> + + <para> + For code called in user context, it's very common to defy C + convention, and return <returnvalue>0</returnvalue> for success, + and a negative error number + (eg. <returnvalue>-EFAULT</returnvalue>) for failure. This can be + unintuitive at first, but it's fairly widespread in the networking + code, for example. + </para> + + <para> + The filesystem code uses <function>ERR_PTR()</function> + + <filename class="headerfile">include/linux/fs.h</filename>; to + encode a negative error number into a pointer, and + <function>IS_ERR()</function> and <function>PTR_ERR()</function> + to get it back out again: avoids a separate pointer parameter for + the error number. Icky, but in a good way. + </para> + </sect1> + + <sect1 id="conventions-borkedcompile"> + <title>Breaking Compilation</title> + + <para> + Linus and the other developers sometimes change function or + structure names in development kernels; this is not done just to + keep everyone on their toes: it reflects a fundamental change + (eg. can no longer be called with interrupts on, or does extra + checks, or doesn't do checks which were caught before). Usually + this is accompanied by a fairly complete note to the linux-kernel + mailing list; search the archive. Simply doing a global replace + on the file usually makes things <emphasis>worse</emphasis>. + </para> + </sect1> + + <sect1 id="conventions-initialising"> + <title>Initializing structure members</title> + + <para> + The preferred method of initializing structures is to use + designated initialisers, as defined by ISO C99, eg: + </para> + <programlisting> +static struct block_device_operations opt_fops = { + .open = opt_open, + .release = opt_release, + .ioctl = opt_ioctl, + .check_media_change = opt_media_change, +}; + </programlisting> + <para> + This makes it easy to grep for, and makes it clear which + structure fields are set. You should do this because it looks + cool. + </para> + </sect1> + + <sect1 id="conventions-gnu-extns"> + <title>GNU Extensions</title> + + <para> + GNU Extensions are explicitly allowed in the Linux kernel. + Note that some of the more complex ones are not very well + supported, due to lack of general use, but the following are + considered standard (see the GCC info page section "C + Extensions" for more details - Yes, really the info page, the + man page is only a short summary of the stuff in info): + </para> + <itemizedlist> + <listitem> + <para> + Inline functions + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + Statement expressions (ie. the ({ and }) constructs). + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + Declaring attributes of a function / variable / type + (__attribute__) + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + typeof + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + Zero length arrays + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + Macro varargs + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + Arithmetic on void pointers + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + Non-Constant initializers + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + Assembler Instructions (not outside arch/ and include/asm/) + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + Function names as strings (__FUNCTION__) + </para> + </listitem> + <listitem> + <para> + __builtin_constant_p() + </para> + </listitem> + </itemizedlist> + + <para> + Be wary when using long long in the kernel, the code gcc generates for + it is horrible and worse: division and multiplication does not work + on i386 because the GCC runtime functions for it are missing from + the kernel environment. + </para> + + <!-- FIXME: add a note about ANSI aliasing cleanness --> + </sect1> + + <sect1 id="conventions-cplusplus"> + <title>C++</title> + + <para> + Using C++ in the kernel is usually a bad idea, because the + kernel does not provide the necessary runtime environment + and the include files are not tested for it. It is still + possible, but not recommended. If you really want to do + this, forget about exceptions at least. + </para> + </sect1> + + <sect1 id="conventions-ifdef"> + <title>#if</title> + + <para> + It is generally considered cleaner to use macros in header files + (or at the top of .c files) to abstract away functions rather than + using `#if' pre-processor statements throughout the source code. + </para> + </sect1> + </chapter> + + <chapter id="submitting"> + <title>Putting Your Stuff in the Kernel</title> + + <para> + In order to get your stuff into shape for official inclusion, or + even to make a neat patch, there's administrative work to be + done: + </para> + <itemizedlist> + <listitem> + <para> + Figure out whose pond you've been pissing in. Look at the top of + the source files, inside the <filename>MAINTAINERS</filename> + file, and last of all in the <filename>CREDITS</filename> file. + You should coordinate with this person to make sure you're not + duplicating effort, or trying something that's already been + rejected. + </para> + + <para> + Make sure you put your name and EMail address at the top of + any files you create or mangle significantly. This is the + first place people will look when they find a bug, or when + <emphasis>they</emphasis> want to make a change. + </para> + </listitem> + + <listitem> + <para> + Usually you want a configuration option for your kernel hack. + Edit <filename>Config.in</filename> in the appropriate directory + (but under <filename>arch/</filename> it's called + <filename>config.in</filename>). The Config Language used is not + bash, even though it looks like bash; the safe way is to use only + the constructs that you already see in + <filename>Config.in</filename> files (see + <filename>Documentation/kbuild/kconfig-language.txt</filename>). + It's good to run "make xconfig" at least once to test (because + it's the only one with a static parser). + </para> + + <para> + Variables which can be Y or N use <type>bool</type> followed by a + tagline and the config define name (which must start with + CONFIG_). The <type>tristate</type> function is the same, but + allows the answer M (which defines + <symbol>CONFIG_foo_MODULE</symbol> in your source, instead of + <symbol>CONFIG_FOO</symbol>) if <symbol>CONFIG_MODULES</symbol> + is enabled. + </para> + + <para> + You may well want to make your CONFIG option only visible if + <symbol>CONFIG_EXPERIMENTAL</symbol> is enabled: this serves as a + warning to users. There many other fancy things you can do: see + the various <filename>Config.in</filename> files for ideas. + </para> + </listitem> + + <listitem> + <para> + Edit the <filename>Makefile</filename>: the CONFIG variables are + exported here so you can conditionalize compilation with `ifeq'. + If your file exports symbols then add the names to + <varname>export-objs</varname> so that genksyms will find them. + <caution> + <para> + There is a restriction on the kernel build system that objects + which export symbols must have globally unique names. + If your object does not have a globally unique name then the + standard fix is to move the + <function>EXPORT_SYMBOL()</function> statements to their own + object with a unique name. + This is why several systems have separate exporting objects, + usually suffixed with ksyms. + </para> + </caution> + </para> + </listitem> + + <listitem> + <para> + Document your option in Documentation/Configure.help. Mention + incompatibilities and issues here. <emphasis> Definitely + </emphasis> end your description with <quote> if in doubt, say N + </quote> (or, occasionally, `Y'); this is for people who have no + idea what you are talking about. + </para> + </listitem> + + <listitem> + <para> + Put yourself in <filename>CREDITS</filename> if you've done + something noteworthy, usually beyond a single file (your name + should be at the top of the source files anyway). + <filename>MAINTAINERS</filename> means you want to be consulted + when changes are made to a subsystem, and hear about bugs; it + implies a more-than-passing commitment to some part of the code. + </para> + </listitem> + + <listitem> + <para> + Finally, don't forget to read <filename>Documentation/SubmittingPatches</filename> + and possibly <filename>Documentation/SubmittingDrivers</filename>. + </para> + </listitem> + </itemizedlist> + </chapter> + + <chapter id="cantrips"> + <title>Kernel Cantrips</title> + + <para> + Some favorites from browsing the source. Feel free to add to this + list. + </para> + + <para> + <filename>include/linux/brlock.h:</filename> + </para> + <programlisting> +extern inline void br_read_lock (enum brlock_indices idx) +{ + /* + * This causes a link-time bug message if an + * invalid index is used: + */ + if (idx >= __BR_END) + __br_lock_usage_bug(); + + read_lock(&__brlock_array[smp_processor_id()][idx]); +} + </programlisting> + + <para> + <filename>include/linux/fs.h</filename>: + </para> + <programlisting> +/* + * Kernel pointers have redundant information, so we can use a + * scheme where we can return either an error code or a dentry + * pointer with the same return value. + * + * This should be a per-architecture thing, to allow different + * error and pointer decisions. + */ + #define ERR_PTR(err) ((void *)((long)(err))) + #define PTR_ERR(ptr) ((long)(ptr)) + #define IS_ERR(ptr) ((unsigned long)(ptr) > (unsigned long)(-1000)) +</programlisting> + + <para> + <filename>include/asm-i386/uaccess.h:</filename> + </para> + + <programlisting> +#define copy_to_user(to,from,n) \ + (__builtin_constant_p(n) ? \ + __constant_copy_to_user((to),(from),(n)) : \ + __generic_copy_to_user((to),(from),(n))) + </programlisting> + + <para> + <filename>arch/sparc/kernel/head.S:</filename> + </para> + + <programlisting> +/* + * Sun people can't spell worth damn. "compatability" indeed. + * At least we *know* we can't spell, and use a spell-checker. + */ + +/* Uh, actually Linus it is I who cannot spell. Too much murky + * Sparc assembly will do this to ya. + */ +C_LABEL(cputypvar): + .asciz "compatability" + +/* Tested on SS-5, SS-10. Probably someone at Sun applied a spell-checker. */ + .align 4 +C_LABEL(cputypvar_sun4m): + .asciz "compatible" + </programlisting> + + <para> + <filename>arch/sparc/lib/checksum.S:</filename> + </para> + + <programlisting> + /* Sun, you just can't beat me, you just can't. Stop trying, + * give up. I'm serious, I am going to kick the living shit + * out of you, game over, lights out. + */ + </programlisting> + </chapter> + + <chapter id="credits"> + <title>Thanks</title> + + <para> + Thanks to Andi Kleen for the idea, answering my questions, fixing + my mistakes, filling content, etc. Philipp Rumpf for more spelling + and clarity fixes, and some excellent non-obvious points. Werner + Almesberger for giving me a great summary of + <function>disable_irq()</function>, and Jes Sorensen and Andrea + Arcangeli added caveats. Michael Elizabeth Chastain for checking + and adding to the Configure section. <!-- Rusty insisted on this + bit; I didn't do it! --> Telsa Gwynne for teaching me DocBook. + </para> + </chapter> +</book> + |